What is ESP?
1. The Origins of ESP
· ESP was not a planned and coherent movement, but rather a phenomenon that grew out of a number of converging trends.
· The end of the Second World War in 1945 heralded an age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale. This expansion created a world unified and dominated by two forces – technology and commerce – which in their relentless progress soon generated a demand for an international language.
· At the same time as the demand was growing for English courses tailored to specific needs, influential new ideas began to emerge in the study of language. Traditionally the aim of linguistics had been to describe the rules of English usage, that is, the grammar. However the new studies shifted attention away from defining the formal features of language usage to discovering the way in which language is actually used in real communication.
· The growth of ESP, then, was brought about by a combination of three important factor: the expansion of demand for English to suit particular needs and developments in the fields of linguistics and educational psychology.
2. The Developments of ESP
· From its early beginnings in the 1960s ESP has undergone three main phases of developments. ESP has developed at different speeds in different countries.
· Register analysis had focused on sentence grammar, but now attention shifted to understanding how sentences were combined in discourse to produce meaning. The concern of research, therefore, was to identify the organizational patterns in texts and to specify the linguistics means by which these patterns are signaled.
· The stage that consider did not really add anything new to the range of knowledge of ESP. What it aimed to do was to take the existing knowledge and set it on a more scientific basis, by establishing producers for relating language analysis more closely to learners’ reasons for learning.
· The fourth stage of ESP has seen an attempt to look below the surface and to consider not the language itself but the thinking processes that underlie language use. The principal idea behind the skills centered approach is that underlying all language use there are common reasoning and interpreting processes, which, regardless of the surface forms, enable us to extract meaning from discourse.
3. ESP: approach not product
1) ESP is not a matter of teaching ‘specialized varieties’ of English.
2) ESP is not just a matter of Science words and grammar for Scientist, Hotel words and grammar for Hotel staff and so on.
3) ESP is not different in kind from any other form of language teaching, in that it should be based in the first instance on principles of effective and efficient learning.
ESP must be seen as an approach not as a product. ESP is not particular kind of language or methodology, nor does it consist of a particular type of teaching material.
Section 2 Course Design
4. Language Description
· Description of English and other languages were based on the grammars of the classical languages. Languages were described in this way because the classical languages were case-based languages where the grammatical function of each word in the sentence was made apparent by the use of appropriate inflections.
· In a structural description the grammar of the language is described in terms of syntagmatic structures which carry the fundamental propositions (statement, interrogative, negative, imperative etc.) and notions (time, number, gender etc.)
· The concept of communicative competence has had far-reaching consequences for ESP. it led to the next three stages of development which shall consider: language variation and register analysis; language as function; discourse analysis.
· The concept of language variation gave rise to the type of ESP which was based on register analysis. If language varies according to context, it was argued, and then it should be possible to identify the kind of language associated with a specific context, such as an area of knowledge (legal English; social English; medical English; business English; scientific English etc.) or an area of use (technical manuals, academic texts, business meetings, advertisement, doctor-patient communication etc.)
· The functional view of language began to have an influence on language teaching in the 1970s, largely as a result of the Council of Europe’s efforts to establish some kind of equivalence in the syllabuses for learning various languages. On notion or functional grounds, however, some approximate equivalence can be achieved, since notions and function represent the categories of human thinking and social behavior, which do not vary across language.
· This next development has also had a profound effect on ESP. Till this point language had been viewed in terms of the sentence. The emphasis moved to looking at how meaning is generated between sentences. This was a logical development of the functional/notional view of language which had shown that there is more to meaning than just the words in the sentence. The context of the sentence is also important in creating the meaning.
5. Theories of Learning
· The starting point for all language teaching should be an understanding of how people learn. Developments in learning theory have followed a similar pattern to those in language description, and each has had some effect on the other.
· The basic exercise technique of behaviorist methodology is pattern practice, particularly in the form of language laboratory drills.
· Having established thinking as rule-governed behaviour, it is one short step to the conclusion that learning consists not of forming habits but of acquiring rules – a process in which individual experiences are used by the mind to formulate a hypothesis. The mentalist view of the mind as a rule-seeker led naturally to the next important stage – the cognitive theory of learning.
· Learning and using a rule require learners to think, that is, to apply their mental powers in order to distil a workable generative rule from the mass of data presented, and then to analyze the situation where the application of the rule would be useful or appropriate. The cognitive code view of learning seems to answer many of the theoretical and practical problems raised by behaviorism. It treats the learners as thinking beings and puts them firmly at the centre of the learning process, by stressing that learning will only take place when the matter to be learnt is meaningful to the learners.
· The cognitive theory tells us that learners will learn when they actively think about what they are learning. Before learner can actively think about something, they must want to think about it.
6. Needs Analysis
· ‘Target needs’ is something of an umbrella, which in practice hides a number of important distinctions. Most characteristic feature of ESP course design – needs analysis. Analysis of target situation needs is concerned with language use. But language use is only part of the story. Analysis of the target situation can tell us what people do with language. In other words, a learning-centred approach to needs analysis.
· There are a number of ways which information can be gathered about needs. The most frequently used are: questionnaires; interviews; observation; data collection e.g. gathering texts; informal consultation with sponsors, learners and other.
7. Approaches to course design
· Course design is the process by which the raw data about the learning need is interpreted in order to produce an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences, whose ultimate aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge. The language-centred course design process aims to draw as direct a connection as possible between the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course.
· The skills-centered approach is founded on two fundamental principles, one theoretical, the other pragmatic:
a) The basic theoretical hypothesis is that underlying any language behaviour are certain skills and strategies, which the learner uses in order to produce or comprehend discourse.
b) The pragmatic basis for the skills-centered approach derives from a distinction made by Widdowson (1981) between goal-oriented courses and process-oriented courses.
· The learner-centered approach is based on the principle that learning is totally determined by learner.
section 3 Application
- The syllabus
A syllabus is a document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt. But, in fact, there are several different ways in which syllabus can be defined. Each stage on its route imposes a further layer of interpretation.
a) The evaluation syllabus
b) The organizational syllabus
c) The materials syllabus
d) The teacher syllabus
e) The classroom syllabus
f) The learner syllabus
The role of the syllabus is a complex one, but it clearly satisfies a lot of needs. This is breakdown has to be based on certain criteria.
a) Topic syllabus
b) Structural/situational syllabus
c) Functional/notional syllabus
d) Skills syllabus
e) Situational syllabus
f) Functional/task-based syllabus
g) Discourse/skills syllabus
h) Skills and strategies
A syllabus is not divine write. It is a working document that should be used flexibly and appropriately to maximize the aims and processes of learning.
- Materials evaluation
Materials evaluation as one way of exploiting a course deign. The evaluation of existing materials can provide a good source ideas (of what to avoid as well as what to do) and techniques. It can also save a lot of duplication of effort by possibly revealing existing materials that can provide all or part of materials needs. The evaluation process should be systematic and is best seen as s matching exercise: matching the analyzed needs with available solutions.
- Materials design
Materials writing is one of most characteristic features of ESP in practice. The materials are intended for lower intermediate level students from a variety of technical specialism. There is much common ground between learners of apparently very different subject specialism. If a new set of materials is needed, the second alternative is to look at published materials. Even if the first two alternatives fail to provide exactly what you want, you can still try adapting existing material. The final possibility is to try and reduce the area of the course that will require new materials.
11. Methodology
It is impossible to deal adequately with methodology in a book. It has to be experienced in the classroom. We have tried in this chapter to show some tehnique which can help to make the ESP classroom a livelier, more enjoyble and thus more effective environtment for both learner and teacher. Before we conclude the chapter however it is necessary to repeat two very important points.
a) There is nothing specific about ESP methodology. The principles which underline good ESP methododology are the same as those that underline sound ELT methodology in general. Similarly, at the level of technique the ESP teacher can learn alot from General English practice. The teacher who has come to ESP from General English need not thing that the whole new methodology must be learnt. The classroom skills and technique aacquired in General Englishteaching can be usefull employed in the ESP classroom.
b) What happen in the classroom is not just an afterthought to be grafted on to ready-made materials and syllabuses. The activities in the classroom should be feed back to all the order stages in the course design. If you can create a usefull activity by changing a text, change it. It is the activity that counts: ‘I do and I understand’.
Section 3 Application
A syllabus is a document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt. But, in fact, there are several different ways in which syllabus can be defined. Each stage on its route imposes a further layer of interpretation.
a) The evaluation syllabus
b) The organizational syllabus
c) The materials syllabus
d) The teacher syllabus
e) The classroom syllabus
f) The learner syllabus
The role of the syllabus is a complex one, but it clearly satisfies a lot of needs. This is breakdown has to be based on certain criteria.
a) Topic syllabus
b) Structural/situational syllabus
c) Functional/notional syllabus
d) Skills syllabus
e) Situational syllabus
f) Functional/task-based syllabus
g) Discourse/skills syllabus
h) Skills and strategies
A syllabus is not divine write. It is a working document that should be used flexibly and appropriately to maximize the aims and processes of learning.
9. Materials evaluation
Materials evaluation as one way of exploiting a course deign. The evaluation of existing materials can provide a good source ideas (of what to avoid as well as what to do) and techniques. It can also save a lot of duplication of effort by possibly revealing existing materials that can provide all or part of materials needs. The evaluation process should be systematic and is best seen as s matching exercise: matching the analyzed needs with available solutions.
The proces of material evaluations:
1. Defining criteria:
- On what bases will You judge materials?
- Which criteria will Be more important?
2. Subjective analysis:
- What realisations of The criteria do you What in your course?
3. Objective analysis:
- How does the material being evaluated realis the criteria?
4. Matching :
· How far does the material match byour needs?
10. Materials Design
Materials writing is one of most characteristic features of ESP in practice. The materials are intended for lower intermediate level students from a variety of technical specialism. There is much common ground between learners of apparently very different subject specialism. If a new set of materials is needed, the second alternative is to look at published materials. Even if the first two alternatives fail to provide exactly what you want, you can still try adapting existing material. The final possibility is to try and reduce the area of the course that will require new materials.
1. Defining objectives
Defining objectives is to know and to identify some principles which will guide us in the actual writing of the materials. By defining objectives we can know what materials are supposed to their needs. We design materials by using this bellow :
a. The materials provide a stimulus to learning.
b. The materials help to organize the teaching-learning process. Materials should truly, reflect what you think and feel about the learning process.
c. Materials should try to create a balanced outlook which reflects the complexity of the task, yet makes it appear manageable.
d. Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training by introducing new techniques.
e. Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.
2. Material design model
a. Input.
The input provides a number of things:
- Stimulus material for activities
- New language items
- Correct models of language use
- A topic for communication
- Opportunities for learners to use their information processing skills
- Opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge both of the language and the subject matter.
b. Content focus.
Language is a means of conveying information and feeling about something.
c. Language focus.
The aim is to enable learners to use language. It should involve both opportunities for analysis and synthesis.
d. Task.
Comprehension in the ESP classroom is often more difficult than real life.
- In the outside world a text would normally appear in a context, which provides reference points to assist understanding.
- It activates the learners’ minds and gets them thinking. They can then approach the text in an active frame of mind.
- It arouses the learners’ interest in the topic.
3. Materials and the syllabus.
There are two types of model used in the material design process
a. Predicative. It is a model that enables the operator to select organizes and to present data.
b. Evaluative. This kind of model acts as a feedback device to tell you whether you have done what you intended. This can be used to check coverage and appropriatecy.
If the models are used inappropriately, the material writers will almost
Certainly be so swapped with factors to consider that they will probably achieve little of worth.
11. Methodology
It is impossible to deal adequately with methodology in a book. It has to be experienced in the classroom. We have tried in this chapter to show some tehnique which can help to make the ESP classroom a livelier, more enjoyble and thus more effective environtment for both learner and teacher. Before we conclude the chapter however it is necessary to repeat two very important points.
a) There is nothing specific about ESP methodology. The principles which underline good ESP methododology are the same as those that underline sound ELT methodology in general. Similarly, at the level of technique the ESP teacher can learn alot from General English practice. The teacher who has come to ESP from General English need not thing that the whole new methodology must be learnt. The classroom skills and technique aacquired in General Englishteaching can be usefull employed in the ESP classroom.
b) What happen in the classroom is not just an afterthought to be grafted on to ready-made materials and syllabuses. The activities in the classroom should be feed back to all the order stages in the course design. If you can create a usefull activity by changing a text, change it. It is the activity that counts: ‘I do and I understand’.
12. EVALUATION
Two levels of evaluation:
1. Learner assesment
The results of this kind of evaluation, for example, enable sponsor, teachers and learners to decide whether and how much language tuition is requared.
· Placement test
To determine the learners’ state of knowledge before the ESP course begins.
· Achievement test
This kind of test does not have to conform to external influences, but should rather reflect the nature and content of the course it self.
· Proficiency test
Proficiency for specific purpose should, therefore, be able to give a reliable indication of whether a candidate is proficient enough to carry out the tasks that will be required.
2. Course evaluation
These two forms of evaluation are not always distinct. Evaluation of the learners reflects not just the learners’ performance but to some extent the effectiveness or otherwise of the course too.
Four main aspects of ESP course evaluation:
· What should be evaluated?
· How can ESP course be evaluated?
· Who should be involved in the evaluation?
· When (and how often) should evaluation take place?
0 comments: